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Department of Education 

FOR THE 

United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900 



MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 



UNITKD STATKS 

edited by 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
Professor of Philosophy and Education in Colu?nbia University, New York 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



WILLIAM T. HARRIS 
United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. 



This Monograph is contributed to the United States' Educational Exhibit by the 

State of New York. 






Copyright by 
J. B. LYON COMPANY 



I 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGB 

Part I General survey of the school system of the United States 3 

Part II Educational organization in the United States 18 

Part III The course of study 30 

Part IV Relation of the schools to the social and political forms of the 

United States 37 

Part V The historical beginnings of schools in the United States 41 

Part VI Appendixes 50-63 

I Table: pupils, public and private, all grades 50 

II Pupils, common schools 52 

III Common school statistics 54 

IV Educational statistics by states 55 

V Corporal punishment |7 

VI Teachers' pensions 5& 

VII Statistics of railroad-building 59 

VIII Statistics of text-book regulations 59 

IX Average amount of schooling per inhabitant 63 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



PART I GENERAL SURVEY OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

In all the schools of the United States, public and private, 
elementary, secondary and higher, there were enrolled in the 
year 1898 about sixteen and one-half millions (16,687,643) 
pupils. (Sec appendix I.) This number includes all who 
attended at any time in the year for any period, however 
short. But the actual average attendance for each pupil 
in the public schools (supported by taxes) did not exceed 
98 days, although the average length of the school session 
was 1 43. 1 days. There were enrolled in the aggregate 
of public and private schools out of each 100 of the popu- 
lation between the ages of 5 and 18 years, 71 pupils. 

Out of the entire number of sixteen and a half millions 
of pupils deduct the pupils of private and parochial schools 
of all kinds, elementary, secondary, higher, and schools for 
art, industry and business, for defective classes and Indians, 
there remain over 15,000,000 for the public school enroll- 
ment, or nearly 91 per cent of the whole. (See appendix I.) 
In the 28 years since 1870 the attendance on the public 
schools has increased from less than 7,000,000 to 15,000,000. 
(Appendix II.) The expenditures have increased some- 
what more, namely, from 63,000,000 to 199,000,000 of dol- 
lars per annum, an increase from $1.64 per capita of popu- 
lation to $2.67. To account for this pro rata increase of 
61 per cent in the cost of the common schools one must 
allow for a slight increase in the average length of the school 
term, aiK:t for the increase of enrollment from less than 17 
per cent to more than 20 per cent of the population. But 
the chief items of increase are to be found in teachers' 
wages for professionally educated teachers, and the cost of 



4 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [8o 

expert supervision. These account for more than two-thirds 
of the 50 per cent, while the remaining one-sixth (of the 
whole) is due to better apparatus and more commodious 
school buildinofs. 

The increase of cities and large villages, owing to the 
influence of the railroad, has brought nearly one-half the 
school population within reach of the graded school holding 
a long session of from 180 to 200 days per year, and taught 
by professional teachers. (See appendix III.) In 1870 
there were for each 10,000 inhabitants 12.75 niiles of 
railway, but in 1890 the number of miles of railway for the 
same number of inhabitants had risen to 26.12 miles, or 
more than double the former amount. The effect of this 
increase of railway is to extend the suburbs of cities and 
vastly increase the urban population. The rural schools in 
sparsely settled districts still continue their old practice of 
holding a winter school with a session of 60 to 80 days 
only, and taught by the makeshift teacher who works at 
some other employment for two-thirds of the year. The 
school year of ideal length should be about 200 days, or 

5 days per week for 40 weeks, i. e., nine and one-half months. 
In the early days of city schools the attempt was made 
to hold a session of over 46 weeks in length, allowing only 
six weeks or less for three short vacations. But experi- 
ence of their advantage to the pupil has led to the increase 
of the holidays to nearly double the former amount. 

Reducing the total average attendance in all the schools, 
public and private, to years of 200 school days each, it 
is found that the average total amount of schooling each 
individual of the population would receive at the rates 
of attendance and length of session for 1898, is five years, 
counting both private and public schools. 

The average schooling, it appears from the above show- 
ing, amounts to enough to secure for each person a. li^ttle-^ 
more than one-half of an elementary school course of eight 
years, — enough to enable the future citizen to read the 
newspaper, to write fairly well, to count, add, subtract, mul- 



8l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 5 

tiply and divide, and use the simplest fractions. In addition 
he acquires a little geographical knowledge, so important to 
enable him to understand the references or allusions in his 
daily newspaper to places of interest in other parts of the 
world. But the multipli^:!./ of cheap books and periodicals 
makes the life of the averp^je citizen a continuation of school 
to some extent. His kno ^ ledge of reading is called into use 
constantly, and he is obliged to extend gradually his knowl- 
edge of the rudiments of geography and history. Even his 
daily gossip in his family, In the shop, or in the field is to 
some extent made up of comments on the affairs of the state, 
the nation, or distant peoples, — China, Japan, Nicaraugua, 
or the Sandwich islands, as the case may be, — and world 
interests, to a degree, take the place of local scandals in his 
thoughts. Thus, too, he picks up scraps of science and 
literature from the newspaper, and everything that he learns 
becomes at once an instrument for the acquirement of 
further knowledge. In a nation governed chiefly by public 
opinion digested and promulgated by the daily newspaper, 
this knowledge of the rudiments of reading, writing, arith- 
metic and geography is of vital importance. An illiterate 
population is impenetrable by newspaper influence, and for 
it public opinion in any wide sense is impossible ; its local 
prejudices are not purified or eliminated by thought and 
feeling in reference to objects common to the whole civilized 
world. 

The transformation of an illiterate population into a 
population that reads the daily newspaper, and perforce 
thinks on national and international interests, is thus far the 
greatest good accomplished by the free public school system 
of the United States. It must be borne in mind that the 
enrollment in school of one person in every five of the entire 
.4?X)pulatiori of the country means the same result for the 
southern states as for the nort hern, sin ce the states on the 
Gulf of Mexico enroll nearly 22 per cent of their total popu- 
lation, colored and white, and the south Atlantic 20.70 per 
cent, while the north Atlantic and the western, mountain and 



6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [82 

Pacific divisions enroll only i8 per cent, having a much 
smaller ratio of children of school age. 

In a reading population one section understands the 
motives of the other, and this prevents political differences 
from becoming too wide for solution by partisan politics. 
When one section cannot any longer accredit the other with 
honest and patriotic motives, war is only a question of time. 
That this general prevalence of elementary education is 
accompanied by a comparative neglect of the secondary and 
higher courses of study is evident from the fact that out of 
the number of pupils enrolled more than ninety-five in every 
hundred are pursuing elementary studies ; less than four in 
a hundred are in secondary studies in high schools, acade- 
mies and other institutions ; only one in a hundred (13 in 
one thousand) is in a college or a school for higher studies. 

In considering the reasons for the increase of the length 
of the term of the elementary school and its adoption of a 
graded course of study, one comes upon the most important 
item of improvement that belongs to the recent history of 
education, namely, the introduction of professionally trained 
teachers. The first normal school established in the United 
States recently celebrated its fiftieth anniversary. It was 
founded at Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839. The num- 
ber of public normal schools supported by the state or 
municipal governments has increased since that year to 167, 
enrolling 46,245 students, and graduating nearly 8,000 per 
annum. To this number are to be added 1 78 private normal 
schools, with an aggregate of 21,293 students and 2,000 
graduates. In 1880 there were 240 normal school students 
in each million of inhabitants; in 1897 there were 936, or 
nearly four times as many in each million. 

The professionally educated teacher finds his place in the 
graded schools, above mentioned as established [n cities and 
large villages, and kept in session for the entire scholastic 

tendents that graduates o{,in'.m;il,Fj:,, ontr ^'et" to ' 
improve in skill and efficiency for many years. The ad van- ' 



83] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 7 

tage of the professionally educated teacher above others is 
to be found in the fact that he has been trained to observe 
methods and devices of instruction. On entering a school 
taught by another teacher he at once sees, without special 
effort, the methods of teaching and management, and notes 
the defects as well as the strong points if there are any. 
He is constantly increasing his number of successful 
devices to secure good behavior without harsh measures, 
and to secure industry and critical attention in study. Every 
normal school has a thorough course of study in the ele- 
mentary branches, taking them up in view of the higher 
branches from which they are derived, and explaining their 
difficult topics. This kind of work prepares the teacher in 
advance for the mishaps of the pupil, and arms him with the 
skill to assist self-activity by teaching the pupil to analyze 
his problem into its elements. He can divide each step that 
is too long for the pupil to take, into its component steps, 
down to any required degree of simplicity. The normal 
school graduate, too, other things being equal, has a better 
idea than other teachers of the educational value of a branch 
of study. He knows what points are essential, and what are 
accidental and subsidiary. He therefore makes his pupils 
thoroughly acquainted with those strategical positions, and 
shows him how to conquer all the rest through these. 

As it would appear from the statistics given, the rural dis- 
tricts are precluded by their short school terms from securing 
professional teachers. The corps of teachers in a highly- 
favored city will be able to claim a large percentage of its 
rank and file as graduates of its municipal training schools 
— perhaps 50 to 60 per cent. But the cities and villages as 
a whole in their graded schools cannot as yet show an aver- 
age of more than one teacher in four who has received the 
diploma of a normal school. 

T-^rA-UOthfer important advantage has been named as belong- 

-iSg-^^sHt^- schools of the vilkge or city.- They ?.4:e-g-r-aded 

schools and have a regular course of study, uniformity of 

tGAL-Dooks, and a proper classification of pupils. In the 



8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [84 

small rural schools some 20 to 50 pupils are brought together 
under one teacher. Their ages vary from 4 years to 20, and 
their degree of advancement ranges from new beginners in 
the alphabet up to those who have attended school for 10 or 
12 winters, and are now attempting Latin and algebra. It 
often happens that there is no uniformity of text-books, except 
perhaps in the spelling-book and reader, each pupil bringing 
such arithmetic, geography or grammar as his family at home 
happens to possess. Twenty pupils are classified in three 
classes in reading, three in spelling, and perhaps as many 
classes in arithmetic, grammar, geography, and other studies 
as there are pupils pursuing those branches. The result is 
from 20 to 40 separate lessons to look after, and perhaps five 
or 10 minutes to devote to each class exercise. The teacher 
finds himself limited to examining the pupil on the work 
done in memorizing the words of the book, or to comparing 
the answers he has found to the arithmetic problems with 
those in the printed key, occasionally giving assistance in 
some difficult problem that has baffled the efforts of the 
pupil — no probing of the lesson by analytical questions, no 
restatement of the ideas in the pupil's own words, and no 
criticism on the data and methods of the text-book. 

This was the case in the old-time district school — such 
as existed in 1790, when 29 out of 30 of the population 
lived in rural districts; also as late as 1840, when only one 
in twelve lived in a city. As the railroad has caused vil- 
lages to grow into cities, so it has virtually moved into the 
city a vast population living near railway stations in the 
country by giving them the morning newspaper and rapid 
transportation. In 1890 one-third of the population were 
living in cities of not less than 8,000 inhabitants. But the 
suburban populations made urban by the railroad — as indi- 
cated above — would swell the city population" to one-half_ 
of the whole nation. Hence the great change novv^ taktng^ 
placeTn methods of building school houses and in oman- 
izing schools. 

In the ungraded schools the naturally bright pupils accom- 



85] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 9 

plished a fair amount of work if they happened to have good 
text-books. They were able to teach themselves from the 
books. But the rank and file of the school learned a little 
reading, writing and arithmetic, and probably studied the 
same book for several winters, beginning at the first page 
on the first day of school each year. Those who needed no 
help from the teacher learned to help themselves and enjoyed 
a delightful freedom. Those who were slow and dull did 
not get much aid. Their industry may have been stimulated 
by fear of the rod, which was often used in cases of real or 
supposed indolence. Harsh measures may succeed in forc- 
ing pupils to do mechanical work, but they cannot secure 
much development of the power of thought. Hence the 
resources of the so-called "strict" teacher were to compel 
the memorizing of the words of the book. 

With the growth from the rural to the urban condition of 
population the method of " individual instruction," as it is 
called, giving it a fine name, has been supplanted by class 
instruction, which prevails in village and city schools. The 
individual did not get much instruction under the old plan, 
for the simple reason that his teacher had only five or ten 
minutes to examine him on his daily work. In the properly 
graded school each teacher has two classes, and hears one 
recite while the other learns a new lesson. Each class is 
composed of twenty to thirty pupils of nearly the same 
qualifications as regards the degree of progress made in 
their studies. The teacher has thirty minutes for a recita- 
tion (or " lesson " as called in England), and can go into the 
merits of the subject and discuss the real thoughts that it 
involves. The meaning of the words in the book is probed, 
and the pupil made to explain it in his own language. But 
besides this all pupils learn more by a class recitation than 
by an individlual recitation. For in the class each can see 
tSeTSon reflected in the minds of his fellow-pupils, and 
undersfand his teacher's views much better when drawn out 
in the form of a running commentary on the mistakes of the 
duller or more indolent pupils. The dull ones are encour- 



lO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [86 

aged and awakened to effort by finding themselves able to 
see the errors and absurdities of fellow-pupils. For no two 
minds take precisely the same view of a text-book exposition 
of a topic. One child is impressed by one phase of it, and 
another by a different phase. In the class recitation each 
one has his crude and one-sided views corrected more or 
less by his fellows, some of whom have a better comprehen- 
sion of this point, and some of that point, in the lesson. He, 
himself, has some glimpses of the subject that are more ade- 
quate than those of his fellows. 

The possibilities of a class recitation are, therefore, very 
great for efficient instruction in the hands of a teacher who 
understands his business. For he can marshal the crude 
notions of the members of the class one after another, and 
turn on them the light of all the critical acumen of the class 
as a whole, supplemented by his own knowledge and experi- 
ence. From beginning to end, for thirty minutes, the class 
recitation is a vigorous training in critical alertness. The 
pupil afterwards commences the preparation of his next les- 
son from the book with what are called new " apperceptive " 
powers, for he finds himself noticing and comprehending 
many statements and a still greater number of implications 
of meaning in his lesson that before had not been seen or 
even suspected. He is armed with a better power of analy- 
sis, and can "apperceive," or recognize and identify, more of 
the items of information, and especially more of the thoughts 
and reflections, than he was able to see before the discus- 
sions that took place in the recitation. He has in a sense 
gained the points of view of fellow-pupils and teacher, in 
addition to his own. 

It is presupposed that the chief work of the pupil in school is 
the mastery of text-books containing systematic treatises giv- 
ing the elements of branches of learning taught in the schools. 
For in the United States more than in any other ^QJAfltrv^ 
text-book instruction has pred^mirtafee-d €>v«r-e>raI-4ftsti^4i€Seft~ 
its method in this respect being nearly the opposite of the 
method in vogue in the elementary schools of Germcm^y. 



87J ELEMENTARY EDUCATION II 

The evil of memorizing words without understanding their 
meaning or verifying the statements made in the text-book 
is incident to this method and is perhaps the most widely 
prevalent defect in teaching to be found in the schools of the 
United States. It is condemned universally, but, neverthe- 
less, practiced. The oral method of Germany escapes this 
evil almost entirely, but it encounters another evil. The 
pupil taught by the oral method exclusively is apt to lack 
power to master the printed page and get out of it the full 
meaning ; he needs the teacher's aid to explain the techni- 
cal phrases and careful definitions. The American method 
of text-book instruction throws the child upon the printed 
page and holds him responsible for its mastery. Hence 
even in the worst forms of verbal memorizing there is per- 
force acquired a familiarity with language as it appears to 
the eye in printed form which gradually becomes more use- 
ful for scholarly purposes than the knowledge of speech 
addressed to the ear. This is the case in all technical, or 
scientific language, and in all poetry and literary prose ; the 
new words or new shades of meaning require the mind to 
pause and reflect. This can be done in reading but not in 
listening to an oral delivery. 

In the United States the citizen must learn to help him- 
self in this matter of gaining information, and for this reason 
he must use his school time to acquire the art of digging 
knowledge out of books. Hence we may say that a deep 
instinct or an unconscious need has forced American schools 
into an excessive use of the text-book method. 

In the hands of a trained teacher the good of the method 
is obtained and the evil avoided. The pupil is taught to 
assume a critical attitude towards the statements of the book 
and to test and verify them, or else disprove them by appeal 
iS.Qtll^i:.!authorities, or to actual experiments. 
^IHu^^-^^^ Jiovers betore-alLj^achers^jeveiLthe^pooxest, 
but it is realized only by the best class of teachers found in 
the schools of the United States, — a class that is already 
large and is constantly increasing, thanks to the analytic 



J-JfcV/ 



12 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [88 

methods taught in the normal schools. Text-book memoriz- 
ing is giving place to the method of critical investigation. 

This review of methods suggests a good definition of 
school instruction. It is the process of re-enforcing the 
sense-perception of the individual pupil by adding the expe- 
rience of the race as preserved in books, and it is more espe- 
cially the strengthening of his powers of thought and insight 
by adding to his own reflections the points of view and the 
critical observations of books interpreted by his teachers and 
fellow-pupils. 

In the graded school the pupil is held responsible for his 
work in a way that is impossible in the rural school of 
sparsely-settled districts. Hence the method of investiga- 
tion, as above described, is found in the city schools rather 
than in the rural schools. Where each pupil forms a class 
by himself, there is too little time for the teacher to ascertain 
the character of the pupil's understanding of his book. 
Even if he sees that there has been a step missed somewhere 
by the child in learning his lesson, he cannot take time to 
determine precisely what it is. Where the ungraded school 
makes some attempt at classification of pupils it is obliged 
to unite into one class say of arithmetic, grammar, or geog- 
raphy, pupils of very different degrees of progress. The 
consequence is that the most advanced pupils have not 
enough work assigned them, being held back to the standard 
of the average. They must " mark time " (or go through 
the motions of walking without advancing a step) -Cvhile the 
rest are coming up. The least advanced find the average 
lesson rather too much for them, and become discouraged 
after trying in vain to keep step with their better prepared 
fellow-pupils. This condition of affairs is to be found in 
many rural districts even of those states where the advantages' 
of classification are seen and appreciated in citj^Sch'^Pkf-il -: 
an effort is in progress to extend those advantages txS^ -the 
ruraTsclrooTs. Bimihe remedy has been, in many~ cases 
worse than the disease. For it has resulted that cV ex....-; fi ca- 
tion gets in the way of self-help which the bright pupil is 



89] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 3 

capable of, and the best scholars "mark time" listlessly, 
while the poorest get discouraged, and only the average 
pupils gain something. 

It must be admitted, too, that in many village schools just 
adopting the system of grading, this evil of holding back 
the bright pupils and of over-pressure on the dull ones exists, 
and furnishes just occasion for the criticism which is made 
against the so-called "machine" character of the American 
public school. The school that permits such poor classifica- 
tion, or that does not keep up a continual process of read- 
justing the classification by promoting pupils from lower 
classes to those above them, certainly has no claim to be 
ranked with schools organized on a modern ideal. 

I have dwelt on this somewhat technical matter because 
of its importance in understanding the most noteworthy 
improvements in progress in the schools of the United 
States. Briefly, the population is rapidly becoming urban, 
the schools are becoming " graded," the pupils of the lowest 
year's work placed under one teacher, and those of the next 
degree of advancement under a second teacher ; perhaps 
from eight to twenty teachers in the same building, thus form- 
ing a "union school," as it is called in some sections. Here 
there is division of labor on the part of teachers, one taking 
only classes just beginning to learn to read and write, another 
taking the pupils in a higher grade. The inevitable conse- 
quence of such division of labor is increase of skill. The 
teacher comes to know just what to do in a given case of 
obstructed progress — just what minute steps of work to 
introduce — just what thin wedges to lift the pupil over the 
threshold that holds back the feeble intellect from entering 
a new and hig-her degfree of human learninor. 

It will be asked : What proportion of the teachers of 
cities and villages habitually use this higher method in con- 
.<^&ctirA!^' recitations. According to a careful estimate, at 
W^st ''>ne-ha-lf of them may reasonably claim to have some 
skill in its use; of the one-half in the elementary schools 
who use it perhaps two-fifths conduct all their recitations so 



14 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [9O 

as to make the work of their pupils help each individual in 
correcting defects of observation and critical alertness. Per- 
haps the other three-fifths use the method in teaching some 
branches, but cling to the old memoriter system for the rest. 
It may be claimed for graduates of normal schools that a 
large majority follow the better method. 

The complaint urged against the machine character of the 
modern school has been mentioned. I suppose that this 
complaint is made quite as often against good schools as 
against poor ones. But the critical-probing method of con- 
ducting a recitation is certainly not machine-like in its effects. 
It arouses in the most powerful manner the activity of the 
pupil to think and observe for himself. Machine-like schools 
do not follow this critical method, but are content with the 
memoriter system, that prescribes so many pages of the book 
to be learned verbally, but does not inquire into the pupil's 
understanding, or "apperception," as the Herbartians call it. 
It is admitted that about 50 per cent of the teachers actually 
teaching in the schools of villages and cities use this poor 
method. But it is certain that their proportion in the corps 
of teachers is diminishing, thanks to the two causes already 
alluded to : first, the multiplication of professional schools 
for the training of teachers ; and second, the employment of 
educational experts as supervisors of schools. 

The rural schools, which in the United States enroll one- 
half of the entire number of school children, certainly lack 
good class teaching, even when they are so fortunate as to 
obtain professionally educated teachers, and not five per cent 
of such schools in the land succeed in procuring better serv- 
ices than the " makeshift" teacher can give. The worst that 
can be said of these poorly taught schools is that the pupils 
are either left to help themselves to knowledge by reading 
their books under the plan of individual instr-aCc^y ^i^v ixi the 
attempt at classification and grading, the average'-'pu-pilg 



learn something, while the bright pupils become listJiiJ an^ 
indolent for want of tasks commensurate with tKelr ctreng-th 
and the backward pupils lose their courage for their want of 



9l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 5 

ability to keep step. Even under these circumstances the 
great good is accomplished that all the pupils learn the 
rudiments of reading, writing and arithmetic, and all are 
made able to become readers of the newspapers, the mao'a- 
zines, and finally of books. 

Another phase of the modern school that more than any- 
thing else gives it the appearance of a machine, and the 
American city schools are often condemned for their mechan- 
ism, is its discipline, or method of organization and govern- 
ment. In the rural school with twenty-five pupils, more or 
less, it makes little difference whether pupils come into the 
school room and go out in military order, so far as the work 
of the school is concerned. But in the graded school with 
three hundred to eight hundred pupils order and discipline 
are necessary down to the last particular, for the safety of 
the pupils as well as for the accomplishment of the ends for 
which the school exists. There must be regularity and 
punctuality, silence and conformity to order, in coming and 
going. The whole school seems to move like a machine. 
In the ungraded school a delightful individuality prevails, 
the pupil helping himself to knowledge by the use of the 
book, and coming and going pretty much as he pleases, with 
no subordination to rigid discipline, except perhaps when 
standing in class for recitation. 

Regularity, punctuality, silence, and conformity to order, 
— military drill, — seem at first to be so much waste of 
energy, — necessary, it is true, for the large school, but to be 
subtracted from the amount of force available for study and 
thought. But the moment the question of moral training 
comes to be investigated, the superiority of the education 
given in the large school is manifest. The pupil is taught 
to be regular and punctual in his attendance on school and 
in all hisjji.QY^nients, not for the sake of the school alone, 
feit teuf Ji^tt his relations to his fellow-men. Social combina- 
tio*' is made possible by these semi-mecVianicai virtues: ' 
The pupil learns to hold back his animal impulse to chatter 
or whisper to his fellows and to interrupt their serious 



l6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [92 

absorption in recitation or study, and by so much self- 
restraint he begins to form a good habit for life. He learns 
to respect the serious business of others. By whispering he 
can waste his own time and also that of others. In moving 
to and fro by a sort of military concert and precision he 
acquires the impulse to behave in an orderly manner, to stay 
in his own place and not get in the way of others. Hence 
he prepares for concerted action, — another important lesson 
in citizenship, leaving entirely out of account its military 
significance. 

With the increase of cities and the growth of great indus- 
trial combinations this discipline in the virtues that lie at 
the basis of concerted action is not merely important, but 
essential. In the railroad system a lack of those semi- 
mechanical virtues would entirely unfit one for a place as 
laborer or employee ; so, too, in a great mill or a great busi- 
ness house. Precision, accuracy, implicit obedience to the 
head or directive power, are necessary for the safety of 
others and for the production of any positive results. The 
rural school does not fit its pupils for an age of productive 
industry and emancipation from drudgery by means of 
machinery. But the city school performs this so well that it 
reminds some people unpleasantly of a machine. 

The ungraded school has been famous for its harsh 
methods of discipline ever since the time of the flogging 
schoolmaster Orbilius whom Horace mentions. The rural 
schoolmaster to this day often prides himself on his ability 
to " govern " his unruly boys by corporal punishment. 
They must be respectful to his authority, obedient and studi- 
ous, or else they are made to suffer bodily pain from the 
hand of the teacher. But harsh discipline leaves indura- 
tions on the soul itself, and is not compatible with a refined 
type of civilization. The schoolmaster Wn-ouJ^uIlies^ Jiis 
pupils into obedience does what he can to nurture t^eS mt^ 
the same type as himself. •. ' ' ' ^ ^,.,,^ 

In the matter of school discipline the graded school H^q 
an advantage over the school of the rural district. A corps 



93] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION I 7 

of teachers can secure good behavior more efficiently than a 
single teacher. The system, and what is disparaged as its 
" mechanism," help this result. In many cities of the largest 
size in the United States, corporal punishment is seldom 
resorted to, or is even entirely dispensed with. (See appen- 
dix V.) The discipline of the school seems to improve 
after the discontinuance of harsh punishments. The adop- 
tion of a plan of building better suited for the purpose of 
graded schools has had much to do with the disuse of the 
rod. As long as the children to the number of one or two 
hundred studied in a large room under the eye of the prin- 
cipal of the school, and were sent out to small rooms to recite 
to assistant teachers, the order of the school was preserved 
by corporal punishment. When Boston introduced the new 
style of school building with the erection of the Quincy 
school in 1847, giving each class-teacher a room to herself, 
in which pupils to the number of fifty or so prepared their 
lessons under the eye of the same teacher that conducted 
their recitations (£<?., "heard their lessons"), anew era in 
school discipline began. It is possible to manage a school 
in such a building with little or no corporal punishment. 

The ideal of discipline is to train the pupil into habits of 
self-government. This is accomplished partly by perfecting 
the habit of moving in concert with others, and by self- 
restraint in all actions that interfere with the work of other 
p4jpils. 

That the public schools of cities have worked great and 
favorable changes to the advantage of civil order cannot be 
doubted. They have generally broken up the feuds that 
used to prevail between the people of different precincts. 
Learning to live without quarreling with school-fellows is an 
efficient preparation for an orderly and peaceful life with 

T h-e ^aral school, with all its: shortcomings, was, and is 

' ^toSav'a great moral force for the sparsely settled regions, 

blinking- together the youth of the scattered families, and 

forming friendships, cultivating polite behavior, affording to 



1 8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [94 

each an insight into the motives and springG of action of his 
neighbors, and teaching him how to co=operate with them in 
securing a common good. 

The city school is a stronger moral force than ihc rural 
school because of its superior training in the social habits 
named — regularity, punctuality, orderly concerted action 
and self-restraint. 

Take any country with a school system, and compare the 
number of illiterate criminals with the total number of illit- 
erate inhabitants, and also the number of criminals able to 
read and write with the entire reading population, and it will 
be found that the representation from the illiterate popula- 
tion is many times larger than from an equal number of 
people who can read and write. In the United States the pre- 
vailing ratio is about eight to one — that is to say, the illit- 
erate population sends eight times its quota to jails. In the 
prisons or penitentiaries it is found that the illiterate stratum 
of the population is represented by two and a half times its 
quota. (See part IV of this monograph.) School educa- 
tion is perhaps in this case not a cause so much as an index 
of orderly tendencies in the family. A wayward tendency 
will show itself in a dislike of the restraints of school. If, 
however, the wayward can be brought under the humanizing 
influences of school, trained in good behavior, which means 
self-restraint and orderly concerted action, interested in 
school studies and the pursuit of truth, what can do more to 
insure a moral life, unless it is religion ? 

PART II EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES 

The European student of education inquiring about 
schools always asks concerning the laws and regulations 
issued by the central government at Washington, taking for 
granted that things of such interest as edueSvf^ii c';*-e^': ^;v 
lated by the nation, as in Europe. 

The central government of the United States, however 
has never attempted any control over education within tKc 
several states. It is further than ever from any such action 



95] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 9 

at the present time. The idea of local self-government is 
that each individual shall manao-e for himself such matters 
as concern him alone ; that where two or more persons are 
concerned the smallest political subdivision shall have juris- 
diction and legislative powers ; where the well-being of sev- 
eral towns is concerned the county or the state may determine 
the action taken. But where the interests of more than one 
state are concerned, the nation has ultimate control. 

While the general government has not interfered to estab- 
lish schools in the states, it has often aided them by dona- 
tions of land, and in some cases by money, as in the acts of 
1887 and 1890, which appropriate annual sums in aid of 
agricultural experiment stations and increase the endowment 
of agricultural colleges, which were formerly established in 
1862 by generous grants of land. 

The total amount of land donated to the several states 
for educational purposes since 1785 to the present have been 
as follows : 

1. For public or common schools : Acres 

Every i6th section of pubhc land in states admitted 
prior to 1848 and the i6th and 36th sections since 
(Utah, however, having four sections) 67,893,919 

2. For seminaries or universities: 

Two townships in each state or territory contain- 
ing public land 1,165,520 

3. For agricultural and mechanical colleges : 

30,000 acres for each member of congress to which 

the state is entitled 9,600,000 

• Total number of acres 78,659,439 



At the rate of one dollar and a quarter an acre (the tra- 
ditional price asked by the government for its lands) this 
arnountsj-^o about one hundred millions of dollars, 
^ Be&k'es this a perpetual endowment by act of 1887 is 
'mp^e^^'i 1^,000'per anrium lbr^ach~agTiculturaT expermient 
ctatlon connected with the state agricultural college, and 
$25,000 perpetual additional endowment by act of 1890 for 



20 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION„ [96 

each of the colleges themselves — this is equivalent to a 
capitalized fund of one million dollars at four per cent for 
each state and territory, or in the aggregate about fifty 
millions more. 

The general government supports the military school at 
West Point, established in 1802, to which each congressional 
district, territory (and the District of Columbia) is entitled 
to send one cadet, the president appointing ten additional 
cadets at large. Each cadet receives $540 a year to pay his 
expenses. (The course of study is four years. The num- 
ber of graduates between 1802 and 1876 was 2,640, about 
fifty per cent of all admitted.) 

The United States naval academy at Annapolis was estab- 
lished in 1845. Its course of study in 1873 was extended to 
six years. Cadets are appointed in the same manner as at 
West Point. 

The general government provides for the education of 
the children of uncivilized Indians and for all the children in 
Alaska, There have been, besides the general grants 
referred to, special grants of land for educational purposes 
such as the "swamp lands" (Acts of 1849, i^SO* i860), by 
which 62,428,419 acres were given to 14 states (Alabama, 
Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Lou- 
isiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio and 
Wisconsin) and by some of these appropriated to education. 

By the act of 1841 a half million of acres was given to 
each of sixteen states (including all above named except 
Indiana and Ohio, and besides these Kansas, Nebraska, 
Nevada and Oregon). This gives an aggregate of 8,000,000 
of acres, the proceeds of most of which was devoted to 
education. The surplus funds of the United States treasury 
were in 1837 loaned to the older states for educational 
purposes to the amount of $15,000,000 and thi^,iund con- 
stitutes a portion of the school fund in many of the states. 

The aggregate value of tands and money ~given"tor~educa-~ 
tion in the several states is therefore nearly three hunareri 
millions of dollars. 



97] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 21 

In 1867 congress established a national bureau of educa- 
tion "for the purpose of collecting such statistics and facts 
as shall show the condition and progress of education in the 
several states and territories, and of diffusing such informa- 
tion respecting the organization and management of school 
systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of 
the United States in the establishment and maintainance of 
efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of 
education throughout the country." This bureau up to 
1898 has published 350 separate volumes and pamphlets 
including 30 annual reports ranging from 800 to 2,300 pages 
each. The policy of the national government is to aid 
education but not in anywise to assume its control. 

The several states repeat in the general form of their state 
constitutions the national constitution and deleg-ate to 
the subdivisions — counties or townships — the manage- 
ment of education. (See appendix VIII, The local unit of 
school organization.) But each state possesses centralized 
power and can exercise it when the public opinion of its 
population demands such exercise. 

Compulsory attendance — Even in colonial times as far back 
as 1642 a compulsory law was enacted in Massachusetts 
inflicting penalties on parents for the neglect of education. 
In the revival of educational interest led by Horace Mann 
in the years after 1837, it was felt that there must be a state 
law, with specific provisions and penalties and this feeling 
took definite shape and produced legislative action. A 
truant law was passed in 1850 and a compulsory law in 
1852, requiring a minimum of 12 weeks attendance on school 
each year for children between the ages of eight and four- 
teen under penalty of twenty dollars. 

In the Connecticut eolony in 1650 the Massachusetts law 
of 1642 ^as, adopted. Amendments were adopted in 1805 
Imct^^i. By a law of 181 3 manufacturing establishments 
were'eompelled to see that '' the children in their employ 
were taug^ht to read, write and cipher [arithmetical calcu- 
lation], and that attention was paid to their morals." In 



22 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [98 

1842 a penalty was attached to a similar law which forbade 
" the employment of children under the age of 15 years unless 
they had been instructed at school at least three months of 
the 12 preceding." 

The efficiency of these early laws has been denied because 
cases of prosecution have not been recorded. But a law- 
abiding people does not wait until prosecuted before obey- 
ing the law. 

The existence of a reasonable law is sufficient to secure 
its general obedience in most parts of the United States. 
But in the absence of any law on the subject the parents 
yield to their cupidity and do not send their children to 
school. The efficiency of a law is to be found in its results 
and if twenty parents in a district send their children to 
school in obedience to the law and would not otherwise have 
sent them, it follows that the law is very useful though the 
twenty-first parent is obdurate and refuses to send his chil- 
dren and yet is not prosecuted for it. 

This explanation of the working of one compulsory law 
will throw light on the working of compulsory laws in the 
twenty-seven states and territories that have passed them. 
There are exceptional localities in each state where an 
obnoxious law is openly and frequently violated, but the 
law is obeyed in all but a few places. In each locality, too, 
there are individuals who are disposed to violate the law and 
succeed in doing so, while all the citizens except these few 
obey the law because they have a law-abiding disposition. 
Abolish the law and the number who neglect the education 
of their children will increase by a large per cent. More 
and more attention has been given in later years to drafting 
compulsory laws with provisions that are sure to be effi- 
cient. The advocates of these new laws are apt in their 
pleas for more stringent laws to do injustice to tJj^-Pld laws. 
The following paragraphs show what states have adtyptecl 
compulsory laws and the dates of adoption (the earlier'dktes 
in Connecticut and Massachusetts being unnoticed) : 

Statistics of compulsory attendance — Thirty states, one 



99] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 23 

territory and the District of Columbia have laws making 
education compulsory, generally at a public or approved 
private school. Sixteen states and one territory do not 
make education compulsory, although all of these have fully 
organized systems of schools free to every child of school 
age of whatever condition. 

The most general period of required attendance at school 
is from eight to fourteen years of age, as is the case in Ver- 
mont, District of Columbia, West Virginia, Indiana, Michi- 
gan, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Mon- 
tana, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and California. 
It begins likewise at eight, but is extended to 15 in Maine 
and Washington, and is from eight to 16 in New Hampshire, 
Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota and New 
Mexico. 

The child is required to begin attendance at the earlier age 
of seven, and continue to 12 in New Jersey, to 13 in Wiscon- 
sin, to 14 in Massachusetts, Kentucky and Illinois; to 15 in 
Rhode Island, and to 16 in Wyoming. 

This is a general statement of age limits ; the required 
time period is in some states shortened in the case of chil- 
dren employed to labor, or extended in the case of those not 
so employed, or growing up in idleness, or illiterate. 

In Massachusetts and Connecticut the child is required to 
attend the full time that the schools are in session ; in New 
York and Rhode Island, also, the full term, with certain 
exceptions in favor of children employed to work. In Penn- 
sylvania the attendance is required for 70 per cent of the 
full term ; in California for 66 2-3 per cent ; for 20 weeks 
annually irt Vermont, New Jersey, Ohio and Utah ; 16 weeks 
annually in Maine, West Virginia, Illinois, Michigan and 
Nevada; 12 weeks annually in New Hampshire, District of 
Columbi?L-«;^v.\j[^2.-na,- Wisconsin, Kansas, North Dakota, South 
DakotV- Nebraska, New Mexic o, I daho, Washington, Ore- 
p-on"^ ancFeight weeks annually in Kentucky. 

In the following states habitual truants are sent to some 
special institution (truant or industrial school, reformatory, 



24 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lOO 

parental home, etc.) : Maine, New Hampshire, Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan. 

Massachusetts requires counties, and New York requires 
cities to maintain truant schools, or provide for their truants in 
the truant schools of neighboring localities. Illinois requires 
cities of over 100,000 inhabitants to maintain truant schools. 
In Rhode Island towns and cities must provide suitable places 
for the confinement and instruction of habitual truants. 

Clothing is furnished in case of poverty to enable children 
to attend school in Vermont, Indiana and Colorado. 

Laws absolutely prohibiting the employment of children 
under a specified minimum age in mercantile or manufactur- 
ing establishments are in force in New Hampshire (under 
10 years), Rhode Island (under 12), and Massachusetts and 
Connecticut (under 14). These states, together with Ver- 
mont, New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, 
North and South Dakota, have laws permitting the employ- 
ment of children of a certain age only while the schools are 
not in session, or provided they have already attended school 
a given number of weeks within the year. 

Statistics of supervision — There are county superintend- 
ents of schools in all those states where the county is a 
political unit for the administration of civil affairs other than 
courts of law. About thirty-five states have this form of 
organization. But in the six New England states and in 
Michigan the only supervision is that of the township, and 
the counties in those states are units almost solely for the 
administration of justice through county courts. In Arkan- 
sas, Texas and North Carolina supervision is only that of 
the subdivisions of townships described as districts. Louis- 
iana, Mississippi and West Virginia have a modified town- 
ship supervision. The county superintendent:;''!}.^-^ lected by 
the people in only 13 states. In the rest they are appointed 
by some state or county officers, or chosen by the cornbined 
vote of the school boards. (See appendix VIII for ai\ expla- 
nation of the local unit of school organization.) 



lOl] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 25 

Each State has a superintendent of public instruction. 
He has this title in 29 states; in the remaining states other 
designations, as '* superintendent of common schools," '* of 
free schools," or " of public schools," " of education " or 
" commissioner of public schools," are used ; he is called 
" secretary of state board of education " in Massachusetts 
and Connecticut. 

Eight hundred and thirty-six (836) cities have superin- 
tendents of their public schools. 

School boards — In cities the local boards which have the 
management of the schools are generally termed "boards 
of education ; " in towns and districts the designations most 
generally used are "school directors" and "school trustees." 

They are termed "school directors" in Arkansas, Illinois, 
Iowa, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, Tennessee and Washington ; 
"school trustees" in Indiana, Kentucky, New Jersey, New 
York, Mississippi, Nevada, South Carolina and Texas ; 
" school boards" in Michigan, Wisconsin, Nebraska and New 
Hampshire ; " school committees " in Massachusetts and 
Rhode Island ; "school visitors" in Connecticut; "superin- 
tending school committees " in Maine ; " boards of educa- 
tion" in Ohio; and "prudential committees" in Vermont. 

These boards are similar in their constitution, powers and 
duties, and are generally chosen by the voters at elections. 
They are corporate bodies and can make contracts, acquire, 
hold and dispose of property. 

They employ teachers (and superintendents when such are 
deemed necessary) and fix their salaries. They make the 
rules and regulations for the government of the schools and 
fix the course of study and the list of text-books to be used. 
They hold meetings monthly or oftener. 

Women in school administration — There are at present 
(1899) twQ \veri\en holding the position of state superin- 
Jt^Udent Cf schools, 18 that of city superintendent, and 256 
that of 'county superintendent. The last named are divided 
between California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kan- 
sas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, 



26 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l02 

Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsyl- 
vania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Washing- 
ton, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In all these states, women 
hold minor school offices also. Ohio, Maine, New Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut have 
no officers corresponding to county superintendents, but in 
all those states there are women who are members of county 
examining boards, township superintendents and the like. 
They may be district trustees or members of local school 
boards in still other states, as in New Jersey. Women may 
hold any school office in Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, 
Louisiana, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Wyo- 
ming, and any office of school management in Minnesota. 
One of the members of the Iowa educational board of exam- 
iners must be a woman. 

Women have like suffrage, in all particulars, with men in 
Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Wyoming. With certain lim- 
itations specified, in some of the states they may vote at 
school elections in Arizona, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, 
Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, 
Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North 
Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Vermont, Washing- 
ton and Wisconsin. The limitations, when there are any, 
usually restrict the suffrage of women to widows with chil- 
dren to educate, guardians and taxpayers, or to certain kinds 
of elections. 

Salaries of teachers — The expenditure for salaries in the 
public schools, teachers and superintendents both included, 
was $123,809,412, in 1897-98, or 63.8 percent of the total 
expenditure for school purposes. The highest average sal- 
aries are found in the western division, among the Pacific 
states and territories, the average per month for men being 
$58.59, and for women $50.92, in that sectioi? of the union. 
The lowest average salaries and the least variance betweeii 
the averages for men and women are found in the^South 
Atlantic section. The averages are, for men $3,1.21, and 
for women $31.45. 



103] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 27 

The length of the school year must be considered in 
determining the annual salary. This period averages for 
the whole country 143. i days, or about seven months of 20 
days each, and ranges from 98.6 days in the south central 
division to 174.5 days in the North Atlantic. (See appendix 
VI, Teachers' pensions, etc.) 

Co-education of the sexes — In both the central and the 
western divisions the education of boys and girls in the same 
schools is common and exceptions rare in the public schools. 
In the North and South Atlantic divisions many of the older 
cities continue to educate the girls in separate schools. In 
newly-added suburban schools, however, co-education is the 
rule (as in Boston, for example). In the rural districts of 
the Atlantic divisions north and south, co-education has 
always been the custom. Considering the whole country, it 
mxay be said that co-education, or the education of boys and 
girls in the same classes, is the general practice in the ele- 
mentary schools of the United States. The cities that pre- 
sent exceptions to this rule are fewer, apparently, than 6 
per cent of the total number. In the majority of these 
cities the separation of boys and girls has arisen from the 
position or original arrangement of buildings, and is likely 
to be discontinued under more favorable conditions. Of 
the 50 principal cities enumerated by the census of 1890, 
4, namely, Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) ; Newark (New 
Jersey); Providence (Rhode Island); and Atlanta (Geor- 
gia) — report separation of the sexes in the high schools 
only ; 2 cities of this class, San Francisco (California), and 
Wilmington (Delaware), reported in 1892, separation in 
all grades above the primary. In 6 cities, New York and 
Brooklyn (New York) ; Boston (Massachusetts) ; Balti- 
more (Maryland) ; Washington (District of Columbia), and 
Louisville,. .(Kentucky) — both separate and mixed classes 
ar^|@ftil^d in all grades. Five cities of the second class, hav- 
inj a population dt 8,000 or more, report separation o! tne 
sexes in the high schools, and 10 cities of the same group 
separate classes in other grades. Of cities whose population 



28 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [104 

is less than 8,000, nine report separate classes for boys and 
girls in some grades. 

Co-education is the policy in about two-thirds of the total 
number of private schools reporting to this bureau, and in 65 
per cent of the colleges and universities. 

Sectarian division of school funds — In connection with this 
matter of state compulsory laws against neglect of schools it 
is well to mention the provisions made in the several states 
prohibiting appropriations of money to aid denominational 
schools. 

There are forty states with constitutional provisions for- 
bidding all, or at least sectarian diversion of the money 
raised for the support of education. 

/. Constitutions which prohibit sectarian appropriations 

— California,' Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, 
Indiana,^ Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, ^ Mis- 
souri, Montana, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oregon,' 
South Dakota, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin,^ Wyoming, 

— 2 1 states. 

2. Constitutions which do not prohibit sectarian appropri- 
ations — Alabama,* Arkansas,"* Connecticut, Delaware, Iowa,"* 
Kansas, Kentucky,^ Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, 
Nebraska,^ Nevada,^ New Jersey,^ New York, North Caro- 
lina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, "* Rhode Island, South Carolina,^ 
Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, — 23 states. 

J*. Constitutions which prohibit any diversion of the school 
fund — Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Flor- 
ida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Min- 
nesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New 

' Can make per capita grants to institutions. 

'Covers only religious and theological institutions. 

'Prohibits any devise, legacy, or gift by last will and tpst3.ip,«jatvt^, ^^^^S^*''^^ "'^ 
ecclesiastical corporations or societies. ^ '■, V 

1 Sectarian appropriations can be made by two-thirds vote of allthe melJlberS 

of both houses of the legislature. 

* Has a revised constitution pending popular adoption. 

* Prohibits sectarian instruction in public schools. 

' Prohibits appropriations to societies, associations or corporations. 



105] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 29 

Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, 
Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South 
Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, Vir- 
ginia, Wisconsin, — 36 states. 

The local unit of school organization — The state exercises 
remote authority over all public schools in its borders. 
The county in most states has a closer supervision of all 
schools in its limits, but has very little to do with schools in 
New England. In certain states it becomes the unit for the 
entire local administration of public schools. The town or 
township takes more or less of the local functions in other 
states, and the district becomes a local unit for variable 
functions in yet others. In 35 counties of Texas there is a 
community system. Counties generally receive, hold and 
disburse moneys for townships and districts formed by sub- 
division of counties. Towns or townships generally hold 
the same relation to districts formed by division of towns 
or townships. In a few states districts have their own tax 
collectors and treasurers. 

The summarized statement below shows the principal 
agency through which local support and control of schools is 
exercised, special laws excepted, under which cities, towns 
and independent districts exist. 

County — Alabama, with either town or township ; Florida, 
with provision for districts of limited power ; Georgia ; Lou- 
isiana, recognizing congressional townships in accounts of 
sixteenth section land funds ; Maryland ; Mississippi, with 
provision for separate districts ; North Carolina, with dis- 
tricts capable of holding real estate ; Tennessee, with some 
local functions in districts and only supervisory powers in 
sub-districts ; Utah, with provision for division. 

Town or township — Alabama, the congressional township ' 
for admiaistrative convenience, its officers appointed and its 
accounts kept by county officers ; Connecticut, the town may 
abolish^^istricts ; Illinois, township based on congressional 
township or district, optional ; Indiana, New Jersey, Ohio 

' The expression " congressional township " refers to the division established in 
new territories by the government survey. Lines of latitude and longitude cross 
one another six statute miles apart, making townships exactly six miles square. 



30 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lo6 



and Pennsylvania, each township, incorporated town or city 
(or borough in Pennsylvania), a district corporation for 
school purposes ; Iowa, township based on congressional 
township, with sub-districts for supervisory convenience and 
independent districts, both in use ; Maine, Massachusetts ; 
Minnesota, township may be a district as a part of a county ; 
New Hampshire ; New York, recognized for certain land 
funds, but districts generally ; North Dakota, based on con- 
gressional township ; Rhode Island, may create or abolish 
districts ; South Dakota, based on congressional township ; 
Vermont, Wisconsin, optional in formation of districts. 

DtstiHci — Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado ; Con- 
necticut, where not abolished by the town ; Delaware, 
Florida, Idaho ; Illinois, optional with townships ; Iowa, 
independent districts as well as townships ; Kansas, Minne- 
sota, Missouri, districts may be less than townships; Ken- 
tucky, Michigan, Mississippi, optional; Montana, Nebraska; 
Nevada, each village, town or city is a district ; New Mexico ; 
New York, commissioner's district, a county or part of a 
county, has supervisory authority, school districts are parts 
of commissioners' districts, towns recognized for certain 
land funds ; North Carolina, with limited powers as stated 
under county ; Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina ; Ten- 
nessee, with limited powers as stated under county ; Texas, 
but cities may acquire exclusive control of their schools, 
towns and villages may be incorporated for school purposes 
only, in 35 community counties families associate from year 
to year to support schools and draw their share of public 
money ; Utah, permissible as stated under county ; Virginia, 
West Virginia, corresponding geographically to magisterial 
districts ; Washington, each city or town (incorporated) ; 
Wisconsin, optional, see town or township ; Wyoming. 

PART III THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY' 

A committee appointed by the National Educational Asso- 
ciation in 1894 prepared a course of study for the eight years 
of the elementary schools recommending two innovations, 



I07] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 3 1 

namely, the introduction of Latin, French or German in the 
eighth year and algebra in the seventh and eighth years. 
The following presents the course as given in the report of 
the committee together with a conspectus in the nature of a 
yearly programme. 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COURSE 

Reading. Eight years, with daily lessons. 

Penmanship. Six years, ten lessons per week for first two years, 
five for third and fourth, and three for fifth and sixth. 

Spelling Lists. Fourth, fifth and sixth years, four lessons per week. 

Grammar. Oral, with composition or dictation, first year to mid- 
dle of fifth year, text-book from middle of fifth year to close 
of seventh year, five lessons per week. (Composition writing 
should be included under this head. But the written exami- 
nations on the several branches should be counted under the 
head of composition work.) 

Latin or French or German. Eighth year, five lessons per week. 

Arithmetic. Oral first and second year, text-book third to sixth 
year, five lessons per week. 

Algebra. Seventh and eighth years, five lessons per week. 

Geography. Oral lessons second year to middle of third year, 
text-book from middle of third year, five lessons weekly to 
seventh year, and three lessons to close of eighth. 

Natural Science and Hygiene. Oral lessons, 60 minutes per week, 
eight years. 

History of United States. Five hours per week seventh year and 
first half of eighth year. 

Constitution of United States. Last half of the eighth year. 

General History and Biography. Oral lessons, 60 minutes a 
week, eight years. 

Physical Culture. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 

Vocal Music. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 

Drawing. 60 minutes a week, eight years. 

Manual Training or Sewing and Cooking. One-half day each week 
in seventh and eighth years. 



32 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



[io8 



GENERAL PROGRAM 



BRANCHES 


ISt 

year 


2d 
year 


3d 
year 


4th 
year 


5th 
year 


6th 
year 


7th 
year 


8th 
year 


Reading 


lo lessons a 
week 


5 lessons a week 




Writing 


lo lessons a 
week 


5 lessons a 
week 


3 lessons a 
week 








Spelling lists 








4 lessons a week 






I 


English grammar 


Oral, with composition 
lessons 


5 lessons a week 
with text-book 








Latin, French, or German. 
















5 les- , 
sons 


Arithmetic 


Oral, 60 min- 
utes a week 


5 lessons a week with 
text-book 










Algebra 














5 lessons a 




week 


Geography 




Oral, 60 
minutes 
a week 


5 lessons a week 
with text-book 


3 lessons a 




week 


Natural Science+Hygiene 


Sixty minutes a week 


United States History .... 














5 lessons 
a week 




United States Constitution 


















5 

Is 


General History 


Oral, sixty minutes a week 




Physical Culture 


Sixty minutes a week 




Vocal Music 


Sixty minutes a week divided into 4 lessons 




Drawing 


Sixty minutes a week 




Manual Training or Sew- 
ing+Cookery 














One-half day 
each week 






Number of Lessons 


20+7 
daily 
exer. 


20+7 
daily 
exer. 


20+5 
daily 
exer. 


24+5 
daily 
exer. 


27+5 
daily 
exer. 


27+5 
daily 
exer. 


23+6 
daily 
exer. 


23+6 
daily 
exer. 


^XotalJlo4ixsx)JL Recitations 


12 


^I2_ 


II 2-3 


13 


r6 1-4 


16 1-4 


17 1-2 


17 1-2 


Length of Recitations. . . . 


15 min 


I5min 


20 min 


20 min 


25 min 


25 min 


30 min 


30 min 



109] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 33 

The subjects actually taught in the elementary schools — In 
the report of the National bureau of education for 1888-89 
(pp. 373-410), from a selected list of 82 of the most 
important cities of the nation, statistics are given showing 
the amount of time consumed in the entire eight years of 
the elementary course on each of the branches constituting 
the curriculum. The returns included 26 branches, one 
of which was spelling. The total number of hours of 
instruction in the entire eight years varied in the different 
cities from 3,000 to 9,000, with a general average of about 
7,000 hours, which would mean that each pupil used about 
four and a half hours per day for 200 days in actual study 
and in recitation or class exercises. The amount of time 
reported as used by pupils in studying and reciting spelling 
during the eight years varied from about 300 to 1,200 hours, 
with an average of 516. This means that from 37 to 150 
hours a year, with average of 77 hours a year for eight years, 
was devoted to spelling. The English speaking child who 
learns to read has to use an inordinate amount of time in 
memorizing the difficult combinations of letters used to rep- 
resent English words. 

This report of the bureau of education gives the time 
devoted to reading in 82 cities as ranging from about 600 to 
about 2,000 hours, and the average as 1,188 hours. Thus 
from 75 to 250 hours a year, with an average of 150, are 
spent in learning to read. 

Geography is reported as using from 200 to 1,000 hours, 
with an average of about 500, or 25 to 125 hours per year, 
the average being rather more than 60 hours a year. This, 
we see, is less than the time devoted to spelling. 

Arithmetic, as shown by the report, still receives more 
attention than any other branch. The amount of time used 
varies from 600 to 2,240 hours, with an average of about 
1,190 hours — that is to say, from 75 to 280 hours per year 
— an^average oT 150 liours~ary"ear. Nu other nation gives 
so much time to arithmetic. The question naturally arises 
whether corresponding results are obtained in the mastery 



34 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l lO 

of this difficult branch, and whether so much arithmetic 
strengthens or weakens the national character on the whole. 

Turning from arithmetic to grammar, we find a great 
falling off in the amount of attention it receives compared 
with the time assigned to it a few years ago. The 82 cities 
report a very large substitution of " language lessons " for 
technical grammar. Grammar proper gets from 65 to 680 
hours of the course, with an average of about 300 hours. 
This would allow from 8 to 80 hours, with an average of 38 
hours per year, if distributed over the entire course. But it 
is evident that grammar proper is, as a study, not profitable 
to take up until the seventh year of the course of study. 
But the language lessons, which are practiced in all the 
grades above the lowest two, more than compensate for any 
curtailment in technical grammar and "parsing." 

Mathematics gives an insight into the nature of matter 
and motion, for their form is quantitative. But the form of 
mind on the other hand is shown in consciousness — a sub- 
ject and object. The mind is always engaged in predicating 
something of something, always modifying something by 
something, and the categories of this mental operation are 
the categories of grammar, and appear as parts of speech. 
The child by the study of grammar gets some practice in the 
use of these categories and acquires unconsciously a power 
of analysis of thoughts, motives and feelings, which is of 
the most practical character. 

History, which gives an insight into human nature as it is 
manifested in social wholes — tribes, nations and peoples — 
is a study of the elementary school, usually placed in the 
last year or two of the course, with a text-book on the his- 
tory of the United States. The returns from the 82 cities 
show that this study everywhere holds its place, and that it 
receives more than one-half as much time as grammar. Con- 
sidering the fact that grammar is beg^un a year earlier, this^||_ 
better than we should expect. With history there is usually 
joined the study of the constitution of the United States for 
one-quarter of the year. Besides this, some schools have 



Ill] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 35 

taken up a special text-book devoted to civics, or the duties 
of citizens. History ranges from 78 to 460 hours, with an 
average of about 150. 

General history has not been introduced into elementary 
schools, except in a few cases by oral lessons. Oral lessons 
on physiology, morals and manners, and natural science have 
been very generally introduced. The amount of time 
assigned in 66 cities to physiology averages 169 hours ; to a 
course of lessons in morals and manners in 27 cities 167 
hours ; to natural science on an average in the 39 cities that 
give a systematic course of lessons, 1 76 hours. 

Singing is quite general in all the schools, and instruction 
in vocal music is provided for in many cities. Lessons in 
cookery are reported in New Haven (80 hours) ; and Wash- 
ington, D. C. (114 hours). It is also taught in Boston, and 
many other cities not reporting it in the list of 82. 

Physical culture is very generally taught. Of the 82 cities, 
63 report it as receiving on an average 249 hours a year. 

Manual training — Manual training is by no means a nov- 
elty in American schools. Thomas Jefferson recommended 
it for the students of the University of Virginia, and Ben- 
jamin Franklin included it in his plan for an academy in 
Philadelphia. An active propaganda was carried on in 
behalf of manual labor in educational institutions for many 
years, beginning about 1830, and some of our foremost 
institutions had their origin under its influence. But what 
is now known as "manual trainings " is traced to an exhibit 
of a Russian institution at the centennial exposition in 
1876. The value of the system of hand training there sug- 
gested was recognized by such men as John D. Runkle and 
C. M. Woodward, who became advocates of the new idea 
and introduced it into the institutions under their charge. 
Siroiig opposition was met among schoolmen for a time, but 
i^^y-*^! training has steadily grown in popularity, and with 
its'growth it has constantly improved in matter and method, 
and consequently in usefulness. In 1898 manual training 
was an essential feature in the public school course of 149 



36 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lI2 

cities. In 359 institutions other than city schools there is 
training which partakes more or less of the nature of man- 
ual training, and which belongs in a general way to the same 
movement. These institutions embrace almost every class 
known to American education, and the manual features vary 
from the purely educational manual training of the Teach- 
ers college in New York city to the specific trade instruction 
of the apprentice schools. 

In many cases the legislatures have taken cognizance of 
the movement. Massachusetts requires every city of 20,000 
inhabitants to maintain manual training courses in both ele- 
mentary and high schools. Maine authorizes any city or 
town to provide instruction in industrial or mechanical draw- 
ing to pupils over 15 years of age ; industrial training is 
authorized by general laws in Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana 
(in cities of over 100,000 population), Maryland, New Jer- 
sey, New York, Pennsylvania, Utah, Wisconsin and Wyo- 
ming. Congressional appropriations are regularly made for 
manual training in the District of Columbia ; Georgia author- 
izes county manual labor schools, and in Washington manual 
training must be taught in each school under the control of 
the State normal school. 

Kindergartens — Kindergartens are authorized by general 
law in Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, 
Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsyl- 
vania, Vermont and Wisconsin. 

Cities also establish kindergartens through powers inherent 
in their charters. In 1897-98 there were public kinder- 
gartens in 189 of the 626 cities of 8,000 population and over. 
In these 189 cities there were 1,365 separate kindergartens 
supported by public funds. The number of kindergarten 
teachers employed was 2,532, and under their care were 
95,867 children, 46,577 boys and 49,290 girls. 

Information, was. obtained. concerning.2^9.84iriyateJcia4§r- 

gartens in 1897-98 and it is probable that at least 500 others 
were in existence. The 2,998 private kindergartens had 
6,405 teachers and 93,737 pupils. It will be seen that the 



113] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 37 

total number of kindergartens, public and private, was 4,363, 
with 8,937 teachers and 189,604 pupils. The actual number 
of pupils enrolled in kindergartens in the United States in 
1897-98 must have exceeded 200,000. 

PART IV THE PLACE OF POPULAR EDUCATION IN THE IDEALS 

OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 

Education in the United States is regarded as something 
organic — something belonging essentially to our political 
and social structure. Daniel Webster announced, in his 
clear and incisive manner, this necessity that appertains to 
the American form of government. He said: "On the 
diffusion of education among the people rests the preserva- 
tion and perpetuation of our free institutions. I apprehend 
no danger to our country from a foreign foe. * * * q^j- 
destruction, should it come at all, will be from another 
quarter. From the inattention of the people to the con- 
cerns of the government, from their carelessness and negli- 
gence, I confess I do apprehend some danger. I fear that 
they may place too implicit confidence in their public serv- 
ants, and fail properly to scrutinize their conduct ; that in 
this way they may be the dupes of designing men and 
become the instruments of their undoing. Make them intel- 
ligent and they will be vigilant ; give them the means of 
detecting the wrong and they will apply the remedy." 

We are making the experiment of self-government — a 
government of the people by the people — and it has seemed 
a logical conclusion to all nations of all times that the rulers 
of the people should have the best education attainable. 
Then, of course, it follows that the entire people of a democ- 
racy should be educated for they are the rulers. 

Quoting again from Webster's Plymouth oration in 1822 : 
" Ry genf^ral instruction we seek as far as possible to purify 
the whole atmosphere, to keep good sentiments uppermost, 
^flu^C^^tBm the strong cutrent—ef-feeUrtg and opimon^^ as- 
wefras the censures of the law and the denunciations of 
religion, against immorality and crime." 



38 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l H 

This necessity for education has been felt in all parts of 
the nation, and the whole subject is reasoned out in many a 
school report published by city or state. By education we 
add to the child's experience the experience of the human 
race. His own experience is necessarily one-sided and 
shallow ; that of the race is thousands of years deep, and it 
is rounded to fullness. Such deep and rounded experience 
is what we call wisdom. To prevent the child from making 
costly mistakes we give him the benefit of seeing the lives of 
others. The successes and failures of one's fellow-men 
instruct each of us far more than our own experiments. 

The school attempts to give this wisdom in a systematic 
manner. It uses the essential means for its work in the 
shape of text-books, in which the experience of the race is 
digested and stated in a clear and summary manner, in its 
several departments, so that a child may understand it. He 
has a teacher to direct his studies and instruct him in the 
proper methods of getting out of books the wisdom recorded 
in them. He is taught first in the primary school how to 
spell out the words and how to write them himself. Above 
all, he is taught to understand the meaning of the words. 
All first use of words reaches only a few of their many sig- 
nifications ; each word has many meanings and uses, but the 
child gets at only one meaning, and that the simplest and 
vaguest, when he begins. His school work is to train him 
into accuracy and precision in the interpretation of language. 
He learns gradually to fill each word of the printed page 
with its proper meaning. He learns to criticise the state- 
ments he reads, and to test them in his own experience and 
by comparison with other records of experience. 

In other words, the child at school is set to work to enlarge 
his own puny life by the addition of the best results of 
other lives. There is no other process so well adapted to 
insure a growth in self-respect as the mastery of the thought 
q£^ the,thiuker3^who-liave..st©f€d^«d sysfeeM^atJze^'l^fe^gSJpftc 
rience of mankind. - — . — r. 

This is the clue to the hopes founded on education. The 



115] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 39 

patriotic citizen sees that a government managed by illiterate 
people is a government of one-sided and shallow experi- 
ence, and that a government by the educated classes insures 
the benefits of a much wider knowledge of the wise ways of 
doinsf thinofs. 

The work of the school produces self-respect, because the 
pupil makes himself the measure of his fellows and grows to 
be equal to them spiritually by the mastery of their wisdom. 
Self-respect is the root of the virtues and the active cause 
of a career of growth in power to know and power to do. 
Webster called the free public school " a wise and liberal 
system of police, by which property and the peace of society 
are secured." He explained the effect of the school as excit- 
ing "a feeling of responsibility and a sense of character." 

This, he saw, is the legitimate effect ; for, as the school 
causes its pupils to put on the forms of thought given them 
by the teacher and by the books they use — causes them to 
control their personal impulses, and to act according to rules 
and regulations — causes them to behave so as to combine 
with others and get help from all while they in turn give 
help ; as the school causes the pupil to put off his selfish 
promptings, and to prefer the forms of action based on a 
consideration of the interests of others — it is seen that the 
entire discipline of the school is ethical. Each youth edu- 
cated in the school has been submitted to a training in the 
habit of self-control and of obedience to social order. He 
has become to some extent conscious of two selves ; the one 
his immediate animal impulse, and the second his moral 
sense of conformity to the order necessary for the harmoni- 
ous action of all. 

The statistics of crime confirm the anticipations of the 
public in regard to the good effects of education. The jails 
of the country show pretty generally the ratio of eight to 
one as the quotas of delinquents furnished from a given 
^iSrrx*4jvr* -of illiterates as eomparedrr^rith an equal number of 
tilt)S€ who can read and write. Out of 10,000 illiterates 
there will be eight times as many criminals as out of 10,000 



40 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll6 

who can read and write. In a state like Michigan, for exam- 
ple, where less than five per cent of the people are illiterate, 
there are 30 per cent of the criminals in jail who are illiter- 
ate. The 95 per cent who are educated to read and write 
furnish the remaining 70 per cent. 

In comparing fractions, it is necessary to consider the 
denominators as well as the numerators. Comparing only 
the numerators, we should say education produces more 
crime than illiteracy ; for here are only 30 per cent of those 
criminals from the illiterate class, but 70 per cent are from 
those who can read and write. On the other hand, taking 
the denominators also into consideration, we say : But there 
are less than five per cent illiterates and more than 95 of 
educated persons in the entire adult population. Hence the 
true ratio is found, by combining the two fractions, to be 
one-eighth, or one to eight for the respective quotas fur- 
nished, (f :g :: 8 : i). 

The penitentiaries, or state prisons, contain the selected 
criminals who have made more serious attacks on person 
and property and on the majesty of the law than those left 
in the jails. These, therefore, come to a larger extent from 
the 70 per cent of arrests which are from the educated class ; 
and it is found, by comparing the returns of the 20 odd states 
that keep records of illiteracy, that the illiterates furnish 
from two to four times their quota for the prisons, while 
they furnish eight times their quota for the jails and houses 
of correction. 

But it is found on investigation that the criminals who can 
read and write are mostly from the ranks bordering on illit- 
eracy. They may be described as barely able to read and 
write, but without training in the use of those arts for 
acquainting themselves with the experience and wisdom of 
their fellow-men.' 

' A point is made that those states which have the completest systems of educa- 
tion have the most criminals in their jails aiiJ prTsbiisr' TETs^sTrue^buTn?^!^ 
nificance is not read aright until one sees by an analysis of the causespl^arrcst 
that it is not a real increase of crime, but an increase of zeal on the part of the 
community to abolish the seeds of crimes, to repress the vices that lead to crime. 



11/] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 4I 

It is against all reason and all experience that the school 
whose two functions are to secure good behavior and an 
intelligent acquaintance with the lessons of human experi- 
ence, should not do what Webster said, namely, " Prevent 
in some measure the extension of the penal code, by inspir- 
ing a salutary and conservative principle of virtue and of 
knowledge in an early age." 

Thus the political problem, which proposes to secure the 
general welfare by intrusting the management of the gov- 
ernment to representatives chosen by all the people, finds 
its solution in the establishment of schools for the people. 

PART V HISTORICAL BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED 

STATES 

All who become interested in the system of education pre- 
vailing in the United States and see the direct bearing it has 
on the realization of the ideal of self-g-overnment, feel an 
interest in the question of its origin. Anything is best 
understood when seen in the perspective of its history. We 
see not only what is present before us but its long trend 
hitherward. 

The school is the auxiliary institution founded for the 
purpose of reinforcing the education of the four funda- 
mental institutions of civilization. These are the family, 
civil society (devoted to providing for the wants of food, 
clothing, and shelter), the state, the church. The character- 
istic of the school is that it deals with the means necessary 
for the acquirement, preservation, and communication of 
intelligence. The mastery of letters and of mathematical 
symbols ; of the technical terms used in geography and gram- 
mar and the sciences ; the conventional meaning of the lines 
used on maps to indicate water or mountains or towns or 
Icititude and longitude, and the like. The school devotes 

— Lp Maagaghll'jgjts., for example, there were in 2^850, 3,351 arrests for drunkenness, 
while in 1885, the number had increased to 18,701. But meanwhile the crimes 
against person and property had decreased from i860 to 1885 forty-four per cent, 
making allowance for increase of population. Life and property had become 
more safe, but drunkenness had become less safe. 



42 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll8 

itself to instructing the pupil on these dry details of arts 
that are used to record systematic knowledge. These con- 
ventionalities once learned, the youth has acquired the art 
of self-help ; he can of his own effort open the door and 
enter the treasure-house of literature and science. What- 
ever his fellow-men have done and recorded he can now 
learn by sufficient diligence of his own. 

The difference between the part of education acquired in 
the family and that acquired in the school is immense and 
incalculable. The family arts and trades, manners and 
customs, habits and beliefs, form a sort of close-fitting 
spiritual vesture : a garment of the soul always worn, and 
expressive of the native character not so much of the indi- 
vidual as of his tribe or family or community. The indi- 
vidual has from his birth been shaped into these things as 
by a mould ; all his thinking and willing and feeling have 
been moulded into the form or type of humanity looked 
upon as the ideal by his parents and acquaintances. 

This close-fitting garment of habit gives him direction but 
not self-direction or freedom. He does what he does blindly, 
from the habit of following custom and doing as others do. 

But the school gives a different sort of training, — its 
discipline is for the freedom of the individual. The educa- 
tion of the family is in use and wont and it trains rather than 
instructs. The result is unconscious habit and ungrounded 
prejudice or inclination. Its likes and dislikes are not 
grounded in reason, being unconscious results of early train- 
ing. But the school lays all its stress on producing a con- 
sciousness of the crrounds and reasons of thinors. I should 
not say all its stress ; for the school does In fact lay much 
stress on what is called discipline, — on habits of alert and 
critical attention, on regularity and punctuality, and self- 
control and politeness. But the mere mention of these 
elements of discipline shows that they, too, are of a nigner 
oraer tnan the habits ot' ffie tamify, inasmuch as tne^^^Sn 
require the exertion of both will and intellect conscibusty 
in order to attain them. The discipline of the school forms 



119] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 43 

a sort of conscious superstructure to the unconscious basis 
of habits which have been acquired in the family. 

School instruction, on the other hand, is given to the 
acquirement of techniques ; the technique of reading and 
writing, of mathematics, of grammar, of geography, history, 
literature, and science in general. 

One is astonished when he reflects upon it at first, to see 
how much is meant by this word technique. All products of 
human reflection are defined and preserved by words used in 
a technical sense. The words are taken out of their collo- 
quial sense, which is a loose one except when employed as 
slang. For slang is a spontaneous effort in popular speech 
to form technical terms. 

The technical or conventional use of signs and symbols 
enables us to write words and record mathematical calcula- 
tions ; the technical use of words enables us to express 
clearly and definitely the ideas and relations of all science. 
Outside of technique all is vague hearsay. The fancy pours 
into the words it hears such meanings as its feelings prompt. 
Instead of science there is superstition. 

The school deals with technique in this broad sense of 
the word. The mastery of the technique of reading, writ- 
ing, geography and history lifts the pupil into a plane of 
freedom hitherto not known to him. He can now by his 
own effort master for himself the wisdom of the race. 

By the aid of such instruments as the family education has 
given him he cannot master the wisdom of the race, but only 
pick up a few of its results, such as the custom of his com- 
munity preserves. By the process of hearsay and oral 
inquiry it would take the individual a lifetime to acquire 
what he can get in six months by the aid of the instruments 
which the school places in his hands. For the school gives 
i.\x^ youth the tools of thought. 

3i?^igrants to America in the colonial period laid stress 

'^bn *&ie establishment of schools. The ideas of Luther 
'were echoed by reformers in Holland, Sweden, Switzer- 
land and elsewhere. Education is called " the foundation 



44 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l20 

of the commonwealth," in 1853, In a school law of Holland. 
At that time there was a stringent school law passed. In 
Sweden education was common before 1650, and every peas- . 
ant's child was taught to read. 

Boston, in 1635, voted a school and funds to support a 
master. Roxbury was quite active in the founding of free 
schools. Plymouth, Weymouth, Dorchester, Salem, Cam- 
bridge, and other towns had schools before 1650. A law of 
the general court of Massachusetts decreed that in every 
town the selectmen should prosecute those who refused to 
" train their children in learning and labor," and to Impose a 
fine of 20 shillings on those who neglected to teach their 
children " so much learning as may enable them perfectly 
to read the English tongue." 

Schools were established In the Connecticut colonies 
immediately after their settlement. The Rhode Island col- 
onies had schools by 1650. In 1636 occurred the important 
vote of the general court of Massachusetts, setting apart 
four hundred pounds for the establishment of a college which 
was endowed two years afterward by John Harvard, receiv- 
ing 1700 pounds and named from its benefactor. The 
public Latin school of Boston dates from 1635. Meanwhile 
in New York the Dutch had brought over their zeal for 
education. The Dutch West India company, in 162 1, 
charged its colonists to maintain a clergyman and a school- 
master. It seems that in 1625 the colonial estimate included 
a clergyman at 1440 florins, and a schoolmaster at 360 
florins. In 1633 the first schoolmaster arrived — Adam 
Roelandson. His name is revered like that of Ezekiel 
Cheever and Philomon Purmont, schoolmasters of early 
Boston. 

As regards common schools in Virginia, the opinion of the 
royal governor, Berkeley, is often quoted : " I thanlc God 
there be no free schools nor printing-presses, and I hope we 
shall not have them these"hiundred years ; for learrirftg^aS 
brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the'worid 
and printing has divulged them and libels against the best 



I2l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 45 

of governments : God keep us from both." The governor 
of the Connecticut colony answered to a question (appar- 
ently of the commissioners of foreign plantations) : " One- 
fourth of the annual revenue of this colony is laid out in 
maintaining free schools for the education of our children." 

A propos to this utterance of Berkeley, against whom the 
more progressive spirit of Virginia arose in rebellion in 1676, 
there should be quoted a more noteworthy sentence from the 
Virginian, Thomas Jefferson, who wrote (to J. C. Cabell) in 
181 8: "A system of general instruction which shall reach 
every description of our citizens from the richest to the 
poorest, as it was my earliest, so shall it be the latest of all 
the public concerns in which I shall permit myself to take 
an interest." 

In 1647 the Massachusetts general court passed what has 
become the most celebrated of the early school laws of the 
colonies. In it occurs the often-quoted passage: ** To the 
end that learning may not be buried in the graves of our 
forefathers, '"^ * * it is ordered that every township 
within this jurisdiction * * * ^f ^}^g number of fifty 
households shall appoint one within their town to teach all 
such children as shall resort to him to write and read, whose 
wages shall be paid either by the parents or masters of such 
children, or by the inhabitants in general •*< * * further 
ordered that any town * * * Qf qj^^ hundred * * * 
householders * * * shall set up a grammar school, the 
master thereof being able to instruct youths so far as they 
may be fitted for the university." This law attached a pen- 
alty to its violation. " Grammar " meant Latin grammar at 
that period. 

New Jersey established schools as early as 1683, and an 
example of a permanent school fund is found in an appro- 
piidtion made that year. In 1693 a law compelled citizens 
^--Pfty_ their shares for the maintenance of a school. In 
LTiA ^a clerg) man from Pennsylvania established in New 
J ersey a classical school that grew in after times into Prince- 
ton college. 



46 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l22 

The original charter given William Penn required that 
the government of his colony should erect and aid public 
schools. Within 20 years after its settlement, schools were 
founded in Philadelphia, and others in towns of that colony. 

The management of the district (elementary) schools 
began in most cases with the church and gradually came 
into the hands of the smallest political subdivision, known as 
"districts." Each township was divided into districts for 
school purposes, and for minor political purposes such as 
repair of the public highways. Each district contained an 
average of four square miles, with a schoolhouse near the cen- 
ter of population, usually a little distance from some village, 
and holding a maximum of forty or fifty pupils. The school 
committee employed teachers. The schools held a three 
months' session in the winter, and sometimes this was made 
four months. The winter school was nearly always " kept " 
by a man. There might be a summer school for a brief 
session kept by a woman. Wages for the winter school, 
even as late as 1840, in the rural districts of New England, 
were six to ten dollars a month. The schoolmaster might 
be a young college student trying to earn money during his 
vacation to continue his course in college. More commonly 
he was a surveyor, or clerk, or a farmer who had a slender 
store of learning but who could "keep order." He pos- 
sessed the faculty to keep down the boisterous or rebellious 
pupils and could hear the pupils recite their lessons memor- 
ized by them from the book. 

There were in some places school societies, semi-public 
corporations, that founded and managed the schools, receiv- 
ing more or less aid from the public funds. Such associa- 
tions provided much of the education in New York, Phila- 
delphia, and in many parts of New England before the 
advent of the public school. 

When the villages began to catch the urban spij|it_and 
establisH graded schools witH a full annual session, tnere 
came a demand for a higher order of teacher, the profes- 
sional teacher, in short. This caused a comparison of ideals ; 



123] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 47 

the best enlightened in the community began an agita- 
tion of the school question, and supervision was demanded. 
In Massachusetts, where the urban civilization had made 
most progress, this agitation resulted in the formation of a 
state board of education in 1837, and the employment of 
Horace Mann as its secretary (June, 1837). Boston had 
been connected with Providence, Worcester and Lowell by 
railroads before 1835, and in 1842 the first great trunk rail- 
road had been completed through Springfield to Albany, 
opening to Boston a communication with the great west by 
the Erie canal and the newly completed railroad from Albany 
to Buffalo. This was the beginning of the great urban epoch 
in America that has gone on increasing the power of the 
city to this day. 

The number of cities containing 8,000 inhabitants and 
upwards, was, in 1790, only six ; between 1800 and 18 10 it 
had increased to 1 1 ; in 1820 to 13; in 1830, 26; in 1840, 
44; in the fifty years between 1840 and 1890 it increased 
from 44 to 443, or 10 times the former number. The urban 
population of the country in 1790 was, according to the 
superintendent of the census (see Bulletin No. 52, April 17, 
1791), only one in 30 of the population; in 1840 it had 
increased to one in 12 ; in 1890, to one in three. In fact, 
if we count the towns on the railroads that are made urban 
by their close connection with the large cities, and the subur- 
ban districts, it is safe to say that now one-half of the popu- 
lation is urban. 

Horace Mann came to the head of education in Massachu- 
setts just at the beginning of the epoch of railroads and the 
growth of cities. He attacked with unsparing severity the 
evils of the schools as they had been. The school district 
system, introduced into Connecticut in 1701, into Rhode 
Island about 1750, and into Massachusetts in 1789, was pro- 
nounced by him to be the most disastrous feature in the 
'^/i-Ox': xxi3tGry of educational legislation in Massachusetts. 

H-Oface Mann extended his criticisms and suggestions to 
the examination of teachers and their instruction in teachers' 



48 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [^24 

institutes ; to the improvement of school buildings ; the 
raising of school funds by taxation ; the creating of a cor- 
rect public opinion on school questions ; the care for vicious 
youth in appropriate schools. He discarded the hide-bound 
text-book method of teaching and substituted the oral dis- 
cussion of the topic in place of the memorizing of the words 
of the book. He encouraged school libraries and school 
apparatus. 

Horace Mann's influence founded the first normal school 
in the United States at Lexington (afterwards moved to 
Framingham), and a second one founded at Bridgewater in 
the fall of the same year (1839). 

Inspired by the example in Massachusetts, Connecticut 
was aroused by Henry Barnard, who carried through the 
legislature the act organizing a state board of commissioners, 
and became himself the first secretary of it (1839). ^^ 1849, 
Connecticut established a normal school. In 1843, Mr. 
Barnard went to Rhode Island and assisted in drawing up 
the state school law under which he became the first com- 
missioner, and labored there six years. 

These were the chief ferm.enting influences in education 
that worked a wide change in the management of schools in 
the middle and western states within the past fifty years. 

Superintendents of city school systems began in 1837 
with Buffalo. Providence followed in 1839; New Orleans 
in 1841 ; Cleveland in 1844; Baltimore in 1849; Cincinnati 
in 1850; Boston in 1851 ; New York, San Francisco and 
Jersey City in 1852; Newark and Brooklyn in 1853; Chi- 
cago and St. Louis in 1854 ; and finally Philadelphia in 1883. 

State superintendents began with New York, 1813 ; New 
York was followed by 16 of the states before 1850. From 
1 85 1 to the civil war, eight states established the office 
of state superintendent ; since then, nineteen other states, 
including 10 in the south, that had no state systems 01 
education previously. ' 

Normal schools in the United States increased frcfrft Qht, 
beginning in 1839 '^^ Massachusetts, to 138 public and 46 



12 5] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 49 

private normal schools in 1889, with an attendance of 
upwards of 28,000 students preparing for the work of teach- 
ino-. This would o-ive a total of some twelve thousand a 

o o 

year of new teachers to meet the demand. It may be 
assumed, therefore, that less than one-sixth of the supply of 
new teachers comes from the training schools specially 
designed to educate teachers. 

The history of education since the time of Horace Mann 
is very largely an account of the successive modifications 
introduced into elementary schools through the direct or 
indirect influence of the normal school. 



50 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



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54 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



[130 



APPENDIX III — Common school statistics of the United States 



I — General statistics 



Total population 

Number of persons 5 to 18 years of age 

Number of different pupils enrolled on the 

school registers 

Per cent of total population enrolled 

Per cent of persons 5 to 18 years of age 

enrolled 

Average daily attendance 

Ratio of same to enrollment 

Average length of school term (days) 

Aggregate number of days attended 

Average number for each person 5 to 18 

years of age 

Average number for each pupil enrolled 



Male teachers. . . 
Female teachers 



Whole number of teachers 

Per cent of male teachers 

Average monthly wages of teachers: 

Males 

Females 

Number of schoolhouses 

Value of school property 



II — Financial statistics 

Receipts : 

Income from permanent funds. 

From state taxes 

From local taxes 

From all other sources 



Total receipts. 



Per cent of total derived from — • 

Permanent funds 

State taxes 

Local taxes 

All other sources 



Expenditures: 

For sites, buildings, furniture, libraries, 
and apparatus 

For salaries of teachers and superin- 
tendents 

For all other purposes 



Total expenditures 

Expenditure per capita of population. 



Expenditure per pupil (of average attend- 
ance) : 

For sites, buildings, etc 

For salaries 

For all other purposes 



Total expenditure per pupil 



Per cent of total expenditure devoted to — 

Sites, buildings, etc 

Salaries 

All other purposes 

Average expenditure per day for each pupil 
(in cents) : ^ 

For tuition 

■ For all purposes ; ..-. 



1870-71 



3Q 500 500 
12 305 600 

7 561 582 
ig.14 

61.45 

4 545 317 

60.1 

132-1 

600 432 802 

48.7 
79-4 



90 293 
129 932 



132 119 
143 818 703 



$42 580 853 



$69 107 612 
1-75 



$9-37 



$15.20 



7-1 
ir.5 



1879-80 



SO 155 783 
15 065 767 

9 867 505 
19.67 

65.50 

6 144 143 

62.3 

130.3 
800 719 970 



122 795 
163 798 



286 593 
42.8 



170 222 
J20 9571 718 



$55 942 972 



$78 094 687 
1.56 



$9.10 



$12.71 



71.6 



7.0 
9-7 



62 622 250 
18 543 201 

12 722 581 
20.32 

68.61 

8 153 635 

64.1 

134-7 

398 232 725 

59-2 
86.3 



125 525 

238 397 



363 922 
34-5 



224 526 

$342 531 791 



$7 744 765 
26 345 323 
97 222 426 
II 882 292 



$143 194 806 



5-4 
18.4 
67.9 

8-3 



$26 207 041 

91 836 484 
22 463 190 



$140 506 715 
2.24 



$3.21 
11.26 
2.76 



$17.23 



18.6 

65.4 
16.0 



8.4 
12.8 



1897-98 a 



72 737 100 
21 458 294 



15 038 636 
20.68 



70.08 
10 286 092 



143-1 
I 471 435 367 



68.6 
97.8 



131 750 
277 443 



409 193 
32.2 

b $45 16 

b $38 74 

242 390 

52 703 781 



$9 213 323 
35 600 643 
134 104 053 
20 399 578 



fi99 317 597 



4.6 
17.9 
67-3 
10.3 



123 809 412 
37 396 526 



$194 020*470 
2.67 



$3-19 
12.04 
3-63 



$18.86 



16.9 
63.8 

«9-3 



8.4 
13.2 



" The figures for 1897-98 are approximate. 



i la 44 states. 



i3i] 



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133] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 57 



APPENDIX V — Corporal punishment 

In one state, New Jersey, the teacher is forbidden by law to 
inflict corporal punishment. No other state goes to this length, 
but Illinois, Kansas, Mississippi, Montana, Pennsylvania, South 
Dakota, Washington, and West Virginia specifically prescribe a 
penalty for excess amounting to cruelty. Legal punishment would 
be meted out to a brutal teacher in the other states just as surely 
as in these, but resort would be had to the common law and not to 
a statute. Only in Arizona is there formal statutory authority for 
corporal punishment, but whipping has been the common mode of 
discipline in school from time immemorial ; custom legalizes it, and 
unless forbidden in express terms the teacher does not need the 
authority of a special permissive law. Judicial decisions to this 
effect have been made in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Indiana, 
Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, 
and probably in other states. 

Local school boards have always the implied power to make 
regulations for the order and discipline of their respective schools, 
and three states, viz., Michigan, New York, and Pennsylvania, 
expressly grant them this power. Acting under this power, 
expressed or implied, several cities, notably New York city, 
Chicago, and Albany, have prohibited absolutely the use of the 
rod. The same is true of Providence, Rhode Island, except in 
the primary grades, and in them whipping must not be inflicted 
unless the written consent of the parent or guardian has been pre- 
viously filed with the city superintendent. 

Corporal punishment may be used as a last resort and under 
rigid regulations as to reports, etc., in a great many cities, among 
them being Baltimore, Detroit, Indianapolis, Louisville, Minne- 
apolis, New Orleans, Pittsburg, Rochester, St. Louis, San Fran- 
cisco, Worcester, and Philadelphia. 



58 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [134 



I 



APPENDIX VI — Teachers' pensions, and benefit associations 

Voluntary mutual benefit associations for temporary aid only 
exist in Baltimore, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Chi- 
cago, Buffalo, San Francisco, St. Paul, and one interstate. These 
have from one to two dollars initiation fee, one to five dollars 
annual dues. Special assessments of one dollar each are made in 
some cases. Benefits in sickness range from fifty cents a day to 
ten dollars a week ; at death funeral expenses only are paid in 
some instances, and in others a sum equal to one dollar from each 
member of the association. 

Associations for annuity or retirement fund only are in New 
York city, Boston, and Baltimore, and there is an annuity guild in 
Massachusetts. The initiation fees reported are three to five dol- 
lars; the annual dues one to one and a half per cent of salary up 
to eighteen or twenty dollars. The annuity is from 60 per cent of 
salary to $600 a year. Time of service required for retirement, 
from 2 to 5 years with disability, from 35 to 40 years without 
disability. 

Associations for both temporary aid and annuity exist in Ham- 
ilton county (Cincinnati), Ohio ; Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and 
District of Columbia. Initiation fees, one to ten dollars ; annual 
dues, five to forty dollars; annuity, five dollars per week to $600 
a year, and $100 for funeral expenses in case of death ; temporary 
aid during illness, five or six dollars per week ; minimum service 
for retirement — with disability, 3 to 5 years; without disability, 
35 to 40 years. 

Pension or retirement funds are authorized by state legislation 
for St. Louis, all cities in California, Brooklyn, New York, Detroit, 
Chicago, New York city, all cities in New Jersey, Cincinnati, and 
Buffalo. Dues, one per cent of salary; annuity, $250 to one-half 
of salary ; minimum, $300, to $1,200 maximum ; minimum service 
— with disability, 20 to 35 years; without disability, 25 to 35 years. 



135] 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



59 



APPENDIX VII — United States railroad mileage ; census years 

i8jo-go 





i8qo 


1880 


1870 


i860 


1850 


1840 


1830 




163 562.12 
26.12 


87 724.08 
17.49 


49 168.33 
12-75 


28 919.79 
9.20 


18571.48 
3-71 


2 755-i8 
1.61 


39.80 
•°3 


Miles per 10,000 population. 



APPENDIX Will— Text-books ; selection ajid supply. 

In a few states text-books do not form a specific subject of legis- 
lation, but local boards have control under the general charge of 
the welfare of the schools. 

In most states legislation regulates the selection of text-books. 

In some states a guaranty is required from publishers to supply 
books, according to samples, at wholesale, retail, introduction, 
exchange, mail prices, part or all, for a term of years. 

In fewer states the school boards buy and sell the books on pub- 
lic account. In certain states boards continue to own the books 
used free by pupils. Indigent pupils are more frequently supplied 
at public expense. 

In most states special or general laws give cities the control of 
the details of their school administration, including text-books. 

Specific penalties are expressed in certain cases for using other 
than prescribed books, but in general such use would be only a 
violation of law, to be dealt with as it occurred. 

State superintendent is here used to indicate the chief officer of 
the state schools. 

In the states immediately following, individuals, except indi- 
gents, buy their books : 

Arizona. — The lists are fixed for 4 years by territorial board. 

Arkansas. — The list is fixed for 3 years, with exceptions, by local 
board, from books recommended by state superintendent. 

California. — The state prepares, publishes, and sells books for 
primary and grammar schools, but high schools supported wholly 
by local effort are almost free of the law. Penalty for using 
other than the state list, forfeiture of one-fourth the apportionment 
from state funds. Indigent pupils are furnished free. 

T/^^r^z<7.— County board fixes list. Unchanged within 5 years" 
except by a three-fourths vote of the full board. Penalty, teacher 
cannot receive pay from pupils using other books. 



60 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [136 

Indiana. — A state board selects books under publishers' guaranty. 
County boards may fix a list of additional books for high schools 
for 6 years. Books are bought and sold by, or subject to, arrange- 
ment of local board, and become private property. Districts sup- 
ply indigents. 

Illinois. — District board fixes list for 4 years. Indigents sup- 
plied free. 

Kentucky. — County board of examiners fixes list for 5 years, 
with publishers' guaranty. The county judge furnishes indigents. 

Louisiana. — State board fixes list for 4 years, with limited local 
discretion. 

Mississippi. — The county school board adopts a series of books 
for 5 years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, pupils without the 
prescribed books in any branch are not to receive instruction in 
that branch. 

Missouri. — A state school-book commission fixed a list, with 
publishers' guaranty, for 5 years from September i, 1897, to be 
handled through dealers. Indigents are supplied from local con- 
tingent funds. 

Nevada. — State board fixes list for 4 years. Penalty, forfeiture 
of apportionment. District furnishes indigents. 

New Mexico. — The territorial board of education is authorized 
to fix a list for 4 years and to contract with publishers and sell to 
counties. Districts furnish indigents. 

North Carolina. — County board fixes list for 3 years, with pub- 
lishers' guaranty. 

OJiio. — A state commission fixes a list on publishers' guaranty, 
from which local boards fix lists for 5 years (with exception). 
Boards may buy and sell to pupils or arrange with dealers to sup- 
ply them. Indigents are furnished. 

Oklahoma. — Territorial superintendent fixes a list for 5 years on 
publishers' guaranty. 

Oregon. — State board fixes a list for 6 years on publishers' 
guaranty. 

South Carolina. — State board fixes a list for 5 years on pub- 
lishers' guaranty, and may require publishers to have depositaries 
in each county, or county boards may furnish books at cost. 

Tennessee. — County superintendent suggests suitable books. 

Texas. — The law resemble* that of Missouri. Penalty, upon 
any teacher or trustee, $10 to $50 for each offense. Every 4ay p| 
violation of law to be considered a separate offense. 



137] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 6l 

Virginia. — Two books of John Esten Cooke — Virginia, a His- 
tory of Her People ; Stories of the Old Dominion — are prescribed 
by law. State board fixes a list. 

West Virginia. — A contract list for 5 years is part of the law of 
1896, with exceptions. County school book boards are established 
by act of 1897. Publishers keep books with local depositaries on 
account of district building fund. Penalty, on every ofificer or 
teacher, $3 to $10 for each ofTense. 

Wyojniug. — A convention of superintendents fixes a list for 
5 years. 

The states following, regularly or through stated action, author- 
ize provision for free use of books by pupils : 

Colorado. — District boards fix list for 4 years, with exceptions. 
Indigents are furnished and, on popular vote, all pupils, free. 

Connecticut. — State board may fix list for 5 years. Town boards 
may take additional action and, on popular vote, furnish free text- 
books. 

Delaware. — State board fixes list ; district board furnishes free 
text-books. 

Idaho. — Books adopted by a state board of text-book commis- 
sioners for all common, graded, and high schools are furnished free 
by the district ; under contracts with publishers for 6 years. 

Iowa. — Local boards may buy and sell to pupils at cost. 
County uniformity can be fixed for 5 years. Text-books are fur- 
nished free to indigents, and, on popular vote, to all, by the 
district. 

Kansas. — A school text-book commission (1897) has selected 
text-books in common-school studies for five years and contracted 
with publishers to furnish them to pupils through agencies at every 
county seat. On popular vote, with a two-thirds majority, school 
boards may purchase books and furnish their use free to pupils. 
Penalty for using other text-books, except for reference, $25 to 
$100, with or without imprisonment. 

Maine, Nezv Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island (towns). 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania (local boards), Maryland (counties), fur- 
nish free text-books. 

Michigan. — District boards furnish books to indigents, and, on 
popular vote, to all pupils, free. 

Minnesota. — Local boards may fix a list for 3 to 5 years, with 
publishers' guaranty, and may purchase and provide for loan free 
or for sale at cost to pupils. 



62 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [138 

Montana. — A state board of text-book commissioners fixed a 
list for 6 years to be handled through dealers, with publishers' 
guaranty. Upon vote of a district, free text-books are furnished. 

Nebraska. — Local boards furnish books free ; may fix list with 
publishers' guaranty not beyond 5 years. A local dealer may be 
designated to handle the books on agreed terms. 

New York. — Every union free school board is " to prescribe the 
text-books * * * and to furnish the same out of any money 
provided for the purpose." 

Common-school districts, by popular vote, may furnish indigent 
pupils. 

North Dakota. — Local boards may furnish free text-books, and 
must on popular vote. Contracts must be for 3 to 4 years with- 
out change. 

South Dakota. — A county board of education is required to 
adopt a uniform series for 5 years, to be furnished through desig- 
nated depositaries under publishers' guaranty. On petition of a 
majority of electors, a school corporation must arrange for free 
text-books. 

Utah. — A convention of superintendents fixes a list, except for 
cities, for 5 years, on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, on teacher, 
loss of eligibility. Boards of education are authorized to furnish 
free text-books, and, in cities, to select books. 

Vermont. — County authority fixes a list for 5 years on pub- 
lishers' guaranty. On popular vote, local boards furnish free text- 
books. 

Washington. — The state board of education fixes a list for 5 
years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, on district, forfeiture of 
one-fourth the apportionment. Local boards furnish indigents, 
and, on popular vote, all pupils. 

Wisconsin. — District board fixes list for 3 years. Penalty on 
every member of the board, $50. On popular vote, books are fur- 
nished free without time limitation as to change. 



I39J 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 



63 



APPENDIX IX — Average total a^notint of schooling {expressed in 
years of 200 school days each) each individtial of the population 
would receive as his equipment for life, under the conditions exist- 
ing at the different dates given in the table, and counting in the 
work done by all grades of both public and private schools and 
colleges 





1870 


1880 


1890 


i8gi 


1892 


1893 


1894 


1895 


1896 


1897 


1898 




3-36 


3-96 


4.46 


4-Si 


4.49 


4.52 


4.72 


4-75 


4-83 


4.91 


5.01 




North Atlantic Division 

South Atlantic Division 

South Central Division 

North Central Division 


5.06 
1.23 
1. 12 
4.01 
3-56 


5-69 
2.22 
■1.86 
-4-65 
4.17 


6.05 
2-73 
2.42 
5-36 
4-57 


6.15 
2.78 
2.62 
5-35 
4.71 


6.18 
2.74 
2.69 
5.21 
5. 07 


6.10 
2-79 
2.64 
5. 38 
4-93 


6-35 
2-95 
2.89 

5-57 
5.01 


6.47 
2-95 
2.65 
5-69 
5-43 


6.52 

2.93 
2.70 
5.84 
5-46 


6.64 
3 -05 
2-75 
5-87 

s-ss 


6.76 

3-'4 
2-95 
5-87 
5-77 





Average total amount of schooling per inhabitant, etc., coyisidering 
only the public elementary and secondary schools, and expressed as 
before in years of 200 school days each 





1870 


1880 


1890 


1891 


1892 


1893 


1894 


1895 


1896 


1897 


i8g8 




2.91 


3-45 


3-85 


3-93 


3-97 


3-99 


4.17 


4.23 


4.28 


4-37 


4.46 




North Atlantic Division 

South Atlantic Division 

South Central Division 

North Central Division 


4-43 

.80 

.80 

3-71 

2.77 


4.84 
1 .90 

1-57 
4.19 

3-57 


4.99 
2.42 
2.20 
4.67 
3-98 


5.06 
2.46 
2.31 
4-74 
4.16 


5.10 
2.46 
2.41 
4-75 
4-47 


5.10 
2.51 
2.38 
4.84 
4-39 


5-28 
2.70 

2-59 
5.00 

4-45 


5-47 
2.68 
2.59 
5-15 
4.87 


5-52 
2.66 
2.44 
5-21 
4-95 


5.61 
2.78 
2.49 
5.28 
5.02 


5-71 
2.87 
2.68 
5-2S 
5-25 







Note. — The figures of this table for the years previous to the current year have been revised 
and differ slightly from those heretofore published. 



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